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Earth's curvature: This could be eliminated by balancing each backsight and foresight distance, or. Atmospheric refraction: This could be eliminated by balancing each backsight and foresight distance, also take short sights well above ground and take backsight and foresight readings qUick succession. Settlement of tripod or turning points: This could be eliminated by choosing stable locations, and taking backsight and foresight readings in qUick succession. Imperfect adjustment of instrument Parallax Earth's curvature Atmospheric refraction Variation in temperature Rod not standard length 7.

Expansion or contraction of rod 8. Rod not held plumb 9. Faulty turning points Settlement oftripod ortuming points Bubble not exactly centered at the instant of sighting Inability of observer to read the rod exactly. Recording B. Faulty additions and subtractions. Rod not held on the same point for both B. Wrong reading of the vernier when the target rod is used. Not having target set properly when the long rod is used. From the figure shown, an object actually at C would appear to be at B, due to atmospheric refraction, wherein the rays of light transmitted along the surface of the earth is bent downward slightly.

The value of h represents the effect of earths curvature and atmospheric refraction and has the following values. O2 :: distance in miles of the intervening hill C from B.

SB lEVELING Since h1, h, and h2 are vertical heights, and considering the effects of curvature and refraction at A and S, as reckoned from a tangent horizontal line at sea level vertically below C, the figure can be reconstructed in its plane sense.

BM, Sta. BM, 2. CD Find the difference in elevation between stations 5 and 9. Find theelevatiQn of TP2. Find the elevation ofBM2. FS BM. Arithmetic check: GD Difference in elevation at point m. Data shown is obtained from a double rodded line of levels of a certain cross-seclion of the proposed ManUa-Bataan Road.

TP1 -L RS. S Rise:: 2. Rise:: 1. Fall:: 1. Rise at station 1. CD Compute the difference In elevation. If the elevation of 8 is Error due to settlement ofrod: N 0.

True difference in elevation 0. Solution: CD Diff. Whatls the corresponding rod reading on A for a hotizontalline of sight Withlnsltument still at D? Solution: CD True diff. Error in rod reading at B with instrument still at P: tL Elevation of B: Elev.

Elevation of C: Elev. B - What is the height of the loWer at a distance 20km, away from the man thaI will just be visible without the Hne of sight approaching nearer than US m. Solution: CD Elevation of the top of the lighthouse: Oiff. In between A andC is another hill 8 which has an elevation of m. CD Determine the clearance or obstruction of the line of sight at hill 8 if the observer is at A so that Cwill be visible from A.

L C jrrepti fof refraBtlon. Error in F. Corrected F. Elevation of B: E1ev. CQmpute the difference in elevatiori between Aand C. Gompute the elevation ofB. A transit is sef up at point Bwhich is between Aand B. The height of Instrument is 1. Considering the effect of curvature and refraction correction. Solution: G Dift. Elevation of 8M 1was found out to be m. Backsight and foresight distances were m. If during the leveling process the line of sight is inclined downward by 0.

If the average backsight reading is 3. Corrected elevation of 8M 2 considering curvature and refraction correction. Corrected elevation of 8M 2 if the line of sight is inclined downward by m. Corrected elev. Determine the corrected elevation of 8M 2, , If at every turning points the rod settles about 0. The temp. Adjusted elev. Compute the barometric reading at MoUnt Apo at10,30 A. Station Time Mt. Arm Mt. Mayan Mt. Compass - an instrument for determining the.

The needle can be corrected by using pliers. The instrument can be corrected by bending the pivot until the end readings of the needle are ' apart for any direction of pointing. Plane of sight not vertical or graduated circle not horizontal. Sight Vanes - which defines the line of sight in the direction of the SN points of the compass box. Magnetic needle - has the property of pointing a fixed direction namely, the magnetic meridian.

Pocket compass - which is generally held in the hand when bearings are observed; used on reconnaissance or other rough surveys. Surveyor's compass - which is mounted usually on a light tripod, or s. Transit compass - a compass box similar to the surveyor's compass, mounted on the upper or vernier plate of the engineer's transit. Sluggish 5. Reading the needle 6. Magnetic variations 1.

Compass is light and portable and it requires less time for setting up, sighting and reading. An error in the direction of one line does not necessarily affect other lines of the survey.

The compass is especially adopted to running straight lines through woods and other places where obstacles are likely to interfere with the line of sight. The compass reading is not very accurate. The needle is unreliable especially with the presence of local attractions, such as electric wires, metals, magnets that may render it practically useless. From the figure shows a compass having a NS and EW calibration. In using a compass, always sight the object with.

Magnetic dip. Isogonic lines - an imaginary lines passing through places having the same magnetic declination: Isoclinic lines - an imaginary line passing through points having the same magnetic dip.

Let us sayan object on the right side is observed, sight this object with the north end of the compass. The needle atthis instant will point steadily on the magnetic north, so a reading could now be obtained as shown as NE. Since the error of observing a bearing is accidental, it is assumed to be distributed equally at each interior angle. The bearings are then adjusted from a line whose observed bearing is to be correct using the adjusted values of each interior angle. It was found that there-was local attraction at both A 'and and therefore a forward and a backward bearing w,ere taken between A 'and apoin!

Cat which there was no local attraction. If the bearing of AC was 8,30'10' E. With an assumed meridian, the beating Mone side AS ls N. Compute the true azimuth of line CO. Compute the true bearing of line AE. CV Compute the bearing of line DE. Compute the bearing of line AE.

S1'OO'W S. CD FInd the true bearing of A6. Compute the bearing of line AD. Lower plate: a. Outer plate b. Lower clamp c. Outer spindle Transit - it is an instrument of designed 3. Leveling plate group:. Engineer's transit - a transit provided with vertical circle and a long level tube on its telescope. Line of sight- the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs and the optical center of the objective lens, regardless of whether it is in adjustment or not.

When in adjustment, the line of sight and the line of collimation can be termed either of the other. Plain transit: a transit without a vertical circle and telescope level. City transit - a transit without a compass and having a U-shaped one piece standard. Mining transit - a transit provided with an Focusing - consists in the adjustment of the eyepiece and the objective so that the cross hairs and the image can be seen clearly at the same time. Theodolite - a transit designed for surveying of high precision.

Geodimeter - a transit which can measure distances using the principles of the speed of light. Three principal subsidivions of a transit and parts under each subd ivision: 1. Upper plate: a. Telescope and telescope level Telescope standard Telescope clamp and tangent screw Vertical circle and vertical vernier Plate levels, compass box, upper tangent screw Vernier and inner spindle 1.

The adjustment of the plate bubble The adjustment of the vertical cross h'air The adjustment of the line of sight The adjustment of the standards The adjustment of the telescope bubble The adjustment of the vertical vernier Four adjustments of the transit which is not ordinarii performed: 7.

To make the line of sight as defined by the horizontal hair coincide with the optical axis. To make the axis of the objective slide perpendicular to the. To center the eyepiece slide. To make the axis of the striding level parallel to the horizontal axis.

Adjustment of the Plate Bubble: Object: To make the axis of the plate level lie in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis. Test: Rotate the instrument about the vertical axis until each level tube is parallel to a pair of opposite leveling screws. Center the bubbles fly means of the leveling screws.

Rotate the transit end for end about the vertical axis. If the bubble remains on the center, then the axis of the plate level tube is perpendicular to the vertical axis. Correction: If the point appears to depart from the cross hair, loosen the two adjacent capstan screws and rotate the cross hair ring in the telescope tube until the point traverses the enUre length of the hair. Tighten the same screws. Correction: I.

Level the instrument again and repeat the test to verify the results. Point sighted 1sf position 3. Adjustment of the line of sight: 2. Adjustment of the vertical cross hair: Object: To make the vertical cross hair in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis.

Test: Slight the vertical cross hair on a well defined point not less than 60 m. If the point appears to move continuously on the hair, then the cross hair is in adjustment Object: To make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Test: Level the instrument. Sight on the point A about m. With both horizontal motions of the instrument clamped, plunge the telescope and set another point B on the line of sight and about the same distance away on the opposite side of the transit.

Unclamp the upper motion, rotate the instrument about the vertical axis, and again sight at A with the telescope inverted, Clamp the upper motion. Plunge the telescope as before, if B is on the line of sight, the desired relation exist. The point sighted should be at the same elevation as the station occupied by the transit.

Correction: If the line of sight does not fall on B, set a point C, on the line of sight beside B. A point D, halfway between Band C, will lie in the same vertical plane with the height point A.

Sight on D, elevate the telescope until the line of sight is beside A, loosen the crews of the bearing cap, and raise or lower the adjustable end of the horizontal axis until the line of sight is in the same vertical plane with A.

Adjustment of standards: 5. Adjustment of the telescope bubble: Object: To make the horizontal axis perpendicular to t he vertical axis. Object: Test: Set up the transit near a building or other object on which is some welldefined point A at a certain vertical angle.

Level the instrument very carefully thus making the vertical axis truly vertical. Sight at the high point A and with the horizontal motions clamped depress the telescope and set a point B on the ground below A. Plunge the telescope, rotate the instrument end for end about the vertical axis, and again sight on A. Depress the telescope as before, it the line of sight falls on B, then the desired relation exist. Select two point A and B say, 60 m. Set up the transit close to A so that when the rod is held upon it, the eyepiece will be about a quarter of an inch from the rod.

Look through the telescope with the wrong end - to at the rod and find the rod reading at the cross hair if visible. If not take the reading by means of a pencil point opposite the center of field of view. Tum the telescope toward Band take a rod reading on it. Subtract one reading from the other to secure the apparent difference in elevation betWeen the two pegs. The transit is then taken to B and the operation is repeated.

The mean of the two apparent difference in elevation is the true difference in elevation between the two pegs. The rod reading on A with the instrument still at B, is then computed. With the computed value for the rod reading at A known, the end of the telescope bubble tube is raised or lowered by means of the adjusting screws until the telescope bubble is centered. Test: Level the instrument first by means of the plate levels and then by means of the telescope bubble, center the telescope bubble carefully and observe if the vernier reads zero.

If not proceed as follows. Correction: Slightly loosen the capstan screws holding the vernier and shift the vernier lightly by tapping lightly with a pencil until the zeros coincide.

Non-adjustment, eccentricity of circle, and errors of graduation. Changes due to temperature and wind. Uneven setting of tripod 4.

Poor focusing parallax , 5. Inaccurate setting over a point 6. Irregular refraction of atmosphere 6. Adjustment of the vertical circle and vernier.

Object: To make the vernier read zero when the telescope bubble is centered. Reading in the wrong direction from the index in a double vemier. W:'mier 2. Reading the vernier opposite the one which was set. Reading the circle wrongly that is reading 59' to 60'. Line of sight deflected to the left of collimation. Angle measurement A Error of line of sight: Line of sight not perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Line of sight ' Line of sight deflected to the right of line of collimation.

Line of collimation 2 When one angle is depression and the other is angle of elevation having numerically equal values, there is no error. B Error of traverse axis of the telescope is not horizontal or horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis.

Line ofsight Line ofcolIimorion. Angle measurement clocwise. The first measurement is made in exactly the same manner as that described for a single angle.

Then, do not touch the upper clamp or upper tangent screw, but loosen the lower clamp turn the telescope back to the first object and set exactly on it by means of the lower clamp and tangent screw. The circle now reads, not 0', but the first single angle. Next loosen the upper clamp, turn the telescope to the second object and set exactly on it by the use of the upper clamp and its tangent screw.

The index of the vernier now points to the double angle on the horizontal circle. Half the angle now read is the improved value of the required angle. If the process is repeated and a third angle is mechanically added to the last reading, the circle reading is divided by three and still more exact values of the angle is obtained. Six readings are usually the greatest number of times taken with the telescope in one position.

Measure this angle that has just been laid off by repetition. Assume that repetition determines 18'29'40" as the value of the angle to the temporary stake. A new stake must then be set a short perpendicular distance called an offset from the temporary stake, by 40". Assume that the true position of the line of sight line of collimation is deflected by an amount "e" as shown.

When the telescope was plunged and point C was sighted, the line of sight is now deflected by an amount equal to 2e from the prolongation of line AB. The telescope is then rotated at ' about its vertical axis and point A is again sighted but this time the telescope is in inverted position. As applied to the Adjustment of Bubble Tube Let us say that there is an error of the axis of the bubble tube fro its position by an amount "e".

If the telescope is rotated at ', the position of the axis of the bubble tube is now doubled as shown in the figure, with reference to its original, position in order to adjust the bubble just move it at half this value. Total error from first to second position is 2e. Therefore to place the axis of the bubble tube to its true position. Point 0 is erroneous by an amount 2e from the prolongation of line AB.

The line of sight is adjusted' by an amount e. Retrograde vernier - the division in the vernier is longer than the division of the scale. Solution: rSpaces, 'I' I.. Since there are 7 spaces on the vernier, only 6 spaces on the circle will give us the coincide reading.

Coincide reading on the scale:: '40' 6 20 :: '40'. There are 13 spaces on the vernier, therefore 14 spaoes on the scale must be laid out to determine the coincide. From A to 0 in the vernier there are 15 spaces, therefore it is equivalent to 14 spaces in the scale. The line of sight with the telescope on the normal position is deflected 30" to the. Compute the corrected horizontal angle between Aand B. What is the offset diStance from the prolongation of lirl!!

DB The first5lgh. The level telescope whose, magnifying power is desired is placed in front of the transit telescope with its objective close 10 the objective end of the transit telescope. Again the same angle is measured thru the two telescope a.

Magnifying power: 5'15' M. Four common geometric figures used in triangulation: 1. Chain of single and independent triangles. Chain of quadrilaterals formed with overlapping triangles. Chain of polygons or central-point figures. Chain of polygons each with an extra diagonal. Station Adjustment 2. Angle Condition Equations 2. Distance AC: 1. SSj2 - 2 Solution: N c. AC is due North. Be A Using Sine Law: B Using Sine Law: A LAT Angle condition equations.

Side Consition equations. Compute the strength of figure factor. Sin L. Sin L5 Sin L7. Compute the adjusted value of angle B by distributing the spherical excess and the remaining error equally. Compute the adjusted value of angle Cby distributing the spherical excess and the remaining error equally. Second tent. Please verify your product is powered on and connected, then try again in a few minutes.

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